Editor’s Note: This microtalk is from SOLA Conference 2021. Learn more about the conference here. Find more resources and videos from the conference on YouTube.
The treatment and reception of Asians in the broader American society has shaped the theological tendencies of Asian American Christians, ranging from very radical to very conservative theologies and all of these tendencies, even though often at odds with each other, share a common goal to gain a voice in mainstream Christianity.
Below is a transcript of the microtalk. It has been edited for length and clarity. You can listen to the audio here.
I grew up in a Korean immigrant family. One aspect of my upbringing was that my parents were committed to their children learning the language of their heritage. So the three of us learned to read Korean by reading the Bible in Korean.
So we were kids reading the Bible in our mother tongue or in our heritage language. Who thought that children should learn how to read so that they can read the Bible? Who thought that the Bible should be available in the vernacular—in the language of the people? Who thought that the scriptures should be translated and available for all to read in their own language?
This actually links us back 500 years to the Reformation. Reading the Bible would be a central part for Protestant reformers starting with Martin Luther. In order to read the Bible, it needed to be available in the people’s own language.
While hiding at the Wartburg Castle under house arrest, Luther himself translated the Bible into his mother tongue, German. His spiritual breakthrough came in part through reading the scriptures, particularly Romans. These early Reformers were avid readers of scripture. They spilled much ink in trying to understand the sacred texts. They wrote commentary after commentary and published many books of sermons. Now this enthusiasm and this energy poured into explaining the Scriptures for their own context, ended up being that some of these commentaries were runaway bestsellers.
Now I share this story about how my particular story connects with the Christian tradition in order to point out that Asian and Asian American Christianity should have a more noticeable part in the broader Christian tradition. I also want to say that the treatment and the reception of Asians in the broader American society has shaped the theological tendencies of Asian American Christians—ranging from very radical to very conservative theologies—and that all of these theologies and tendencies, even though they are at odds with each other at times, share the common goal to gain a voice in mainstream Christianity.
Various contributing factors to Asian American history, including post-1965 immigration patterns, legal action concerning Asian Americans, regional and national sentiment toward Asians, racial and ethnic violence more recently and even in the past, as well as the effects of the model minority theory, the scholarship of Asian American theologians, and the growth of Asian American evangelicalism—all of these factors have contributed to the shaping of Asian American Christianity.
Asian American Christian thinkers have increasingly engaged in the ongoing process of interpreting the Bible and applying biblical principles to address the issues and questions that concern Asian Americans. And part of that—a big part of that—is sharing how their stories reveal how God has worked in their lives. And these stories should be a part of the Christian tradition. The contributions of Asian American Christians were not meant to reject wholesale the past traditions, although some do want to do that. But instead, the idea is to draw from past traditions and build on them to gain a further and more fuller Asian American perspective.
I believe that gaining a voice is important because staying quiet sometimes is misunderstood as having nothing to offer. I also think that the future of Asian American church depends on this if it does not want to remain on the margins. The first step to gaining a tradition, to gaining a voice in that tradition, requires looking back to the past, but also looking forward to the future. The Christian tradition looks both ways by seeking a reinterpretation of the Christian history so it can become a rich resource for Asian Americans.
Let me give you an example of what I mean. So in Matthew 4 it says, “Man shall not live by bread alone.” Now we know that the word man doesn’t mean just males, but it means humanity. It talks about man shall not live by bread alone, meaning the physical sustenance of bread for the person’s life is not enough for their abundant living. Biblical scholar and Asian American Professor Choon-Leong Seow says that for Asians, when you hear this verse mentioned, it would make more sense if it were understood as, “Man shall not live by rice alone.’ What he’s arguing is not that we change the biblical text. But what he’s saying is if you want to get across the meaning of the Scriptures—that just physical sustenance by itself is not enough for abundant life—the way to do that for Asian Americans so that they would truly understand, would be to talk about what is their sustenance, what do they see as being dependent on for their physical well being. So one of the things that becomes clear is that pastors and preachers become the teachers of theology.
Now, in the study of Asian American history, I will refer to several key terms, and so I want to define them so we are all on the same page. I know that these terms are loaded. I know that they have a lot of nuances, but just for the sake of understanding, I want to define them for you.
When I use the word “Asian American theologies,” I am talking about distinct theological ideas and biblical interpretations that are articulated by Asian American Christian scholars. These tend to be used specifically in theological schools or academic settings but now are increasingly in sermons by pastors and preachers who are working in Asian American contexts.
Another word I will use is the word “assimilation.” Now, assimilation is a theoretical process in which foreign people groups—usually seen as outsiders—merge or assimilate and accept and become like the dominant host culture who are insiders. So another way to put it is outsiders becoming insiders. Most of the time, this is just theoretical. Nevertheless, I will use this term, so I want it to define it for you.
Third is the term “evangelical subculture.” This refers to the values of the assumptions and the norms set by evangelical leaders and churches that tend to be theologically, morally, socially, politically conservative, but not always. Evangelicals will split in political parties, but they usually have a high view of the Bible. They desire, usually, to be countercultural, and there is an emphasis on the individual’s relationship with God.
Now, the distinct Asian American contributions to the Christian tradition began with Asian American Christian leaders in mainline denominations. It was an early effort to be spokespersons for authentic ways of being Christian in America today. Now, this is not just a simple thing, and it’s not just one story. But the effort starts in these early efforts, starting in the 1960s. The history of Asian American evangelicals, in particular, is a relatively new phenomenon. As David Yoo points out, the identification of Christianity with the United States or the West has been obscured by the fact that Asian Christianity is not synonymous with the religion of missionaries. And in fact, Asians and Asian Americans have made Christianity their own.
The First Generation of Asian American Christianity
So let me highlight a few developments that affected and impacted Asian American Christianity. You’ll see this first in the mainline denominations, and then you’ll see this also in evangelical circles. In the 1960s, the Civil Rights Movement raised consciousness about racism in American institutions. This was also a time when racial minority students called for the establishment of ethnic studies in higher education. This was also a time when high numbers of Asian Americans claimed Christianity as their religion. This was also accompanied by a swell of Asian Americans entering theological education in the United States and Canada.
With these developments, you begin to get a trickle of Asian intellectuals who began to work in contextual theology or theology for Asian American Christians. Now, Asian American students’ activism paved the way for this emergence, and Asian American theologians in the 1960s and 1970s began to work on Asian American theologies. This first generation of Asian American theologians were primarily Japanese American, Korean American, and Chinese American men within mainline Protestant traditions. They were often seen as pioneers, if you want to say it positively, or in a negative way, they were labeled as irrelevant, or even worse, un-Christian.
But, their collective efforts increased awareness of Asian American voices in the fields of religion, theology, and ecclesial institutions and resisted Asian American invisibility and silence. These voices of the first generation of Asian American scholars and church leaders challenged the theories of assimilation within the church because for the most part, the churches had adopted these theories of assimilation. The churches’ assumption was, as Asians become Americans, they will join the mainline, mostly Anglo churches, and become integrated. But this first generation of Asian American theologians ended up operating outside the mainstream, and one of the things they did was, they fought for the rights of Asian American Christians to define and shape their own identities and their own churches.
Part of the process of resisting this assimilation and integration was that Asian American theologians in this first generation ran into waves of discrimination against them because they were, in fact, trying to resist a process that most people had accepted. To give an example, the California Oriental Provisional Conference, which was part of the larger United Methodist Church at the time, and the Pacific Japanese Provisional Conference, were both dissolved in the 1950s and 1960s in the name of assimilation. The idea was that you don’t need to have these Asian American conferences and you don’t need to have these Asian American separate churches because they can just integrate. So they broke up these Japanese, Korean, and Filipino congregations, and they merged them into White congregations.
However, this type of assimilation did not go smoothly. It became really clear to many of these Asian American leaders that mergers meant a subordinate status. And this had a devastating effect on the morale, the church growth, and clergy recruitment among Asian Americans. Within four years of this merger, Asian Americans were starting to have a change of heart and began to look for ways to reorganize themselves. At this juncture, the majority-White Christians who controlled these institutions insisted on assimilation and viewed these early Asian American lay-activist, clergy, and church leaders, and theologians as radical fringe activists.
Many of these leaders within the church stayed within the church but really pushed to keep Asian American churches in something called “separate, but more equal.” Although many Asian American Christians themselves did not necessarily identify with the theological elaborations of some of these scholars, the early generations were groundbreaking in the way they raised awareness for a distinctly Asian American Christian Christianity and theology in the area of theological education. Asian American female theologians also began to add color to the theological scenery with their multifaceted critiques of patriarchy by highlighting power as a psychological, social, political, and theological issue.
The Struggles of Asian American Churches
Asian Americans as theologians were being heard and generating a spectrum of responses. At this point, you begin to see the explosion of Asian American membership in evangelical congregations. This transformation would begin in the 1970s and begin to gain momentum in the 1990s. The second generation of Asian Americans, while differing in approaches, mostly sought to claim both their Asian and American identities. They resisted the effort to try to make them choose one or the other. Instead, they sought to preserve both. One example is Peter Phan, a Vietnamese American, who writes that Asian American theology should be seen as a hybrid theology: It is authentically American and authentically Asian. This statement epitomizes what these early Asian American scholars were trying to accomplish in their articulation of new theologies. As a result, these scholars collectively demonstrated a wide variety, and this honestly reflected the diversity within American Christianity itself.
So now, let me say a few words about this growth in Asian American evangelical circles since the 1990s. Despite the popular stereotypes of Asians as representing foreign or exotic religions, a significant majority of Asian American Christians are evangelical. The growth in Asian American evangelicalism is partly due to the fallout of defecting from many mainline Asian American churches. While Asian American churches in mainline denominations have grown since the 1970s, they have struggled with competition and strife on the inside and persistent forms of cultural and institutional racism from the outside.
For example, in an area with a high concentration of Asian Americans, Asian American churches [within mainline denominations] actually compete for rental space to worship properties owned by Anglo American congregations. Now, while the Anglo American congregations are dwindling, these Asian American congregations are growing. And one of the things that the Anglo churches do is depend on the income that comes from renting out their church properties. But one of the things that we see in this process is that some of these congregations are charging excessive rent that increase annually and far exceed the annual salary of the Asian American pastor and that they frequently ask for additional funds from these Asian renters for building maintenance or property upgrades. And then third, when they’re not met with immediate compliance for whatever damages they’re asking for from those who are borrowing the building, they easily threaten to lease it to some other Asian congregation, thereby pitting Asian American congregations against each other.
So both the Anglo congregation and the Asian American congregation belong to the same denomination, in the same regional district, and pay the same denominational dues. When the pastor of the Asian American congregation was asked, “Why don’t you just move?”, the reply was telling: “Because I have heard from other Asian American pastors that it is the same treatment all around here.” Now, if something like this were to happen among kids in an elementary school, it would be called bullying. But when it happens in a mainline denomination, it’s called cross-cultural ministries and sharing space. Such experiences confirm that Asian Americans, even as Christians have the same theological tradition, are forever foreigners, treated like house guests who have overstayed their welcome.
Now, this is really interesting in these cases because, in many of these denominations, the Asian American churches are one of the largest churches, meaning they’re paying the highest amount of denominational dues. And yet, many of those leaders opt not to attend conference meetings, and they opt not to be in larger gatherings. Instead, they focus on their churches, and they tend to be, as I said, some of the largest growing churches in those denominations. Asian American college congregations are in many cases tolerated for their financial value in exchange for a space to worship. In other words, Asian American Christians pay a hefty price for the freedom to remain distinctly Asian American.
At the same time, internal fighting, divisions, splits, as well as competition among Asian Americans themselves have not only fragmented a collective Asian American Christian voice but also ironically have enabled Anglo American churches to maintain their structural claim of superiority. Consequently, some Asian American congregations have conducted capital campaigns to purchase their own properties and articulate their grievances, urging reform within mainline denominations. But many more have remained silent.
One consequence of such struggle has been the further development of ethnic-specific denominations or nondenominational forms of Christianity. I already said earlier that evangelical Christianity was on the rise. This is one of the reasons—because their format of polity is much more independent. Younger Asian Americans are flocking to evangelical Christianity, most visibly the cohorts of Gen Y’ers or millennials in the 18-to-35 year range, and Korean American evangelicals and Chinese American evangelicals have decided not to return to the first-generation immigrant communities. In addition, there is the disillusionment with the first-generation mainline churches, which is in large part fueled also by the work of parachurch organizations.
So another thing fueling evangelicalism within Asian Americans is the work of groups like Campus Crusade for Christ, InterVarsity Christian Fellowship—both have significant Asian American membership—as well as smaller Asian American Christian fellowships throughout college campuses. For example, there are more than 50 evangelical Christian groups at the University of California in Berkeley and at the University of California, Los Angeles, and 80% of their members are Asian American. On the East Coast, just in case you think this is only on the West Coast, one out of four evangelical college students in New York City colleges and universities are Asian American.
Asian American Christians and Their Identity
So now scholars have posited a variety of reasons why Asian Americans, especially the younger generations, are, though not solely, attracted to evangelical Christianity rather than mainline Protestant or Catholic Christianity, although there are numbers in both of those as well. One thing that has become clear is that for these Asian American Christians, the evangelical subculture of American Christianity has become a defining point for their identity construction.
This disidentification from nonevangelicals prompts an alternate identity that is not based on race and ethnicity. What I mean by this is that in evangelical circles, there is a higher emphasis on your faith as being your central identity. What that does is it deemphasizes a little bit of the racial-ethnic dynamic, which is so caught up in problematic ways.
Asian American sociologist Anthony Ekholm says that in his ethnography study of second-generation Korean American evangelicals that he observed that many Korean Americans are attracted to evangelicalism’s emphasis on grounding one’s true identity in one’s faith. In particular, this sociologist recognizes that many Asian Americans have the dilemma of having to cope with the paradox of living up to a highly racialized model minority image to be successful on the one hand, while at the same time being marginalized for being the minor minority in the first place.
So this paradox makes our racial identity very tricky. So one attractive feature about Asian American evangelicalism is that the focus is more on deemphasizing racial minority status and emphasizing more the primary identity as Christians. So this also explains some of the sociological benefits of joining ethnic-specific churches. Many are turning to not just evangelicalism but also ethnic-specific or Asian American evangelicalism.
Now, some scholars will argue that mainline Protestantism had focused on a racial minority group within a common history of cultural oppression and racism. So mainline Asian Americans had been focusing on their racial status and recognizing that within a longer history of American racism. Evangelical Asian American Christians, however, tend to view the Asian American group more as an affinity group made up of personal networks and similar lifestyles. Therefore, evangelical churches tend to focus much more on family dynamics, psychological issues such as self-worth and identity construction. All of these emphases have actually aided the rapid growth of Asian American evangelical churches.
Based on Carolyn Chen’s study, many Asian Americans, even those who are marginally Christian—even those who may not fully be at the point where they’re embracing all components of Christian doctrine—they are drawn to Asian American evangelical communities because of their search for an extended model family. This comes in the form of a spiritual community. In the midst of generational tensions and pressures, and in the midst of all kinds of family dysfunctions that often come with immigrant families, the Asian American self-definition is in flux. So Asian Americans who strive for a sense of belonging in a community, where they have the best chance to be fully who they are, where people understand their struggles, and hopes, often because they share similar ones, are tending to find that in evangelical churches—Asian American evangelical churches, to be specific.
Now, one complicating factor I do have to mention is that this categorization I’m using. I know that I’ve said mainline versus evangelical to categorize these, but in many cases, Asian Americans in mainline churches often represent the evangelical wing within their denominations, so one can expect to find similar concerns expressed in some mainline congregations as well. One could argue that Asian American evangelicals who have adopted Western evangelical beliefs and practices have actually become American in a narrow sense.
In her study, Rebecca Kim claims that while ethnic religious organizations have shed most of the practices and rituals of their ethnic community, and while many of them actually have embraced dominant White evangelical practices and rituals, they still resist assimilation and maintain ethnic-specific boundaries. So despite their socioeconomic status, despite their acculturation, despite their language ability in the English language, and despite their entry into mainstream professions, Asian American evangelicals are still flocking to ethnic-specific campus ministries and those ethnic-specific churches as well.
So what Kim explains is that ethnic minorities are not willing to settle for subordinate group status, and Whites are not yet willing to yield. In other words, she says ethnic minorities are not willing to be involved in the kind of traditional assimilation, where assimilation is simply being done to them, where they’re the ones who have to change. They’re the ones who have to adapt. They’re the ones who have to shed their differences in the process of integration. Instead, separation goes both ways. This construction of Asian American identity—Asian American Christian identity—is not unique to any particular single group, but it’s this awareness that they’re not going to just be the ones changing all the time.
The Future of Asian American Christianity
Recently, the growth of Asian American Christianity, including this noticeable Asian American evangelical growth, has raised some concerns. There’s this concern about lack of distinctiveness. There’s the sense in which, “What are the Asian American evangelicals offering that other evangelical groups or white evangel groups are not offering? Isn’t it the same thing?” And so there’s been these serious concerns raised, especially in light of the current pastoral leadership crisis, and the future of the Asian American evangelical church.
Now, it is important to note that these critiques that are coming in are actually meant to empower Asian Americans. They’re actually meant to give Asian Americans a voice in their own understanding of what it means to be both Asian American and Christian at the same time.
So one of the things that we are beginning to see is that Asian American evangelicals, in ethnic-specific or pan-ethnic churches, who embrace the components of evangelical faith, who embrace the Christian tradition to a large extent, actually may be in the best position to express a theological identity that is simultaneously Asian American and Christian. These Asian American evangelical thinkers, pastors, and theologians have emerged from the shadows, and they’re beginning to pave new theological paths by carrying out in-depth theological reflections. It is this kind of independence, creative thinking, and self determination that a new wave of Asian American evangelical theologians are calling for.
In conclusion, in the changing face of global Christianity where Christianity is actually growing much faster in the global South, and in light of evangelicalism, also growing, both in the American context as well as abroad, the question is not about the need to hear from diverse voices, but as Soong-Chan Rah points out, “Will these voices speak up?” Will these voices be heard? And when these voices speak up, will they speak in their own voices?
The time is right for the development of Asian American theologies. It is time to create space for these distinct contributions from various Asian American Christian leaders addressing a variety of issues through the amazing American Christian vantage point. Some will look at social outreach because they understand the struggle of immigrants and immigration. Some will contribute to the role of women in the church. Some will look at family issues and contribute there. There’s a variety of issues Asian American Christians can comment on and contribute to. Contemporary Asian American theologians across the denominations and across the theological spectrum are beginning to favor the process of interpreting the Christian tradition through their own stories. In this way, they seek to address and shape the Christian tradition from their Asian American perspectives.
So as leaders, I ask you: How does your story connect with the Christian tradition? I started with my own story. In fact, I think it has to be rooted in history, but it doesn’t stay there. It doesn’t stay in the past. It has to then be contextualized for us in our context today.
Keep in mind that we are not limited in our Asian American Christian understanding to post-1965. But we as Asian Americans can read the span of Christian history as our own. When Christian Asian American leaders speak, they will revitalize not only Asian American Christianity but also global Christianity as well. Thank you.
This microtalk is from SOLA Conference 2021. Learn more about the conference here. Find more resources and videos from the conference on YouTube.